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A guide to disinformation affecting local authorities and their communities
Abstract: This guide, produced for the Local Government Association (LGA), outlines definitions of mis/dis/malinformation and its impacts on communities and local authorities. It details responses and countermeasures and case studies from councils.
Source: Local Government Association, 2026
Mis- and disinformation
Abstract: The spread of false and misleading information poses significant risks to the well-being of people and society. While such content is not necessarily illegal, it can contribute to polarisation, jeopardise the implementation of policies, and undermine trust in democratic institutions and processes. Action is required to strengthen the integrity of information spaces to protect freedom of expression and democratic engagement.
Source: OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), 2026
Deciphering authenticity in the age of AI: how AI-generated disinformation images and AI detection tools influence judgements of authenticity
Abstract: An ongoing surge of Artificial Intelligence (AI)-enabled false content has been spreading its way through the information ecosystem, including AI-generated images, which have been used as part of political disinformation campaigns. Thus, there remains a pressing need to understand which factors individuals rely upon when determining whether images are AI-generated, particularly when they can be used to spread disinformation. AI-generated images have been characterised by their aesthetic realism, which can be leveraged to deceive users, and those who use generative AI to create deceptive content also tend to exploit its ability to convey and elicit emotion. This experimental study explored how aesthetic realism and emotional salience, as key features of both AI-generated content and disinformation, may influence authenticity judgements of AI-generated disinformation images. In this study, 292 UK-based participants were presented with both AI-generated and non-AI-generated disinformation images which varied in aesthetic realism and emotional salience. Results showed that participants were more likely to judge realistic-looking AI-generated images as being authentic compared with less realistic-looking AI-generated images, but did so with less confidence in their decision. Emotional salience was not a significant predictor of judgements. When participants were presented with the correct verdict of an AI detection tool, their reliance on the tool to update their own judgements was predicted by the aesthetic realism of the image and their confidence levels. These findings may assist with the development of disinformation detection tools, as well as strategies that mitigate the spread of deceptive, synthesised visual content in the digital age.
Source: Farooq A. AI & Society, June 2025; 41: 493-504
Generative Artificial Intelligence and Disinformation
Abstract: The impact of Generative Artificial Intelligence (Gen AI) on the information ecosystem has garnered significant attention, especially since 2024 was a critical year for elections worldwide. This chapter investigates the relationship between Gen AI and the creation, dissemination, and amplification of disinformation. It aims to debunk myths about Gen AI and to clarify its capabilities and limitations. As a technology based on mathematical and statistical theories, Gen AI does not understand the content it produces. While it does not disinform itself, it can be misused for disinformation purposes.
The chapter explores the disinformation considerations associated with the different stages of Gen AI: the input phase, the prompt stage, the output, and the use stage. It includes recent examples of disinformation involving text, images, video, and audio generated by AI. The debated risks of Gen AI for disinformation are addressed, noting that while Gen AI may not drastically alter the disinformation landscape, human actors remain the primary drivers. However, extensive research is needed to assess its full impact.
The chapter also examines how recent European Union (EU) regulatory and policy instruments cover Gen AI. Preliminary analysis focuses on the AI Act, the Digital Services Act (DSA), the Gender-Based Violence Directive, the European Media Freedom Act, the Guidelines on the mitigation of systemic risks for electoral processes, and the Strengthened Code of Practice on Disinformation.
Source: Krack N. Disinformation, January 2026: 259-291
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Implications of Artificial Intelligence for Information Systems
Abstract: This chapter argues that contemporary information systems are converging toward an information singularity, a regime in which information is predominantly generated, validated, and acted upon by machines. We distinguish classical AI agents (bounded, policy-driven executors) from agentic AI, which exhibits goal-directed autonomy by planning multi-step workflows, calling tools and APIs, using memory, and iterating on outcomes. We show how agentic architectures enhance core IS types (TPS, MIS, DSS/ESS, ERP/CRM/SCM, BI) by shifting value from isolated predictions to end-to-end operational gains: shorter cycle times, fewer escalations, and higher data quality. The same shift relocates risk from model accuracy to system-level safety, including mis-specified objectives, over-permissioned tools, prompt-/retrieval-injection, cascading failures, cross-border data issues, provenance weaknesses, and automation bias amplified by seemingly “completed” machine actions. The chapter operationalizes governance through lifecycle controls (dataset lineage, versioned pipelines, evaluation gates, least-privilege scopes, human-in-the-loop (HITL) approvals, immutable audit logs, continuous adversarial testing), linking statutory/regulatory duties (e.g., EU AI Act) with practice frameworks (e.g., NIST AI RMF). We also address debates over AI personhood and argue for human-centered accountability.
Source: Kantsepolsky B. Managing Information Singularity, August 2026: 135-186
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Multilateral Efforts on Information Integrity: Why a Clear Definition Is Needed
Abstract: How should “information integrity” be understood in the context of the information environment? The term has seen increased use by researchers and policymakers, yet its relative newness means that there is a lack of consistency in its definition and scope. This chapter provides analysis on how “information integrity” has been defined across multilateral efforts and existing literature. Using John Gerring’s framework for “conceptual goodness”, it evaluates how existing conceptualizations of the term falls short and provides guidance on how information integrity can achieve conceptual goodness. Only by doing so can information integrity fulfill its potential in supporting multi-stakeholder coordination to improve the global information environment.
Source: Yadav K. Disinformation: a multidisciplinary analysis, January 2026; 489-511
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Combating Disinformation with News Literacy Interventions: An Experimental Study on the Framing Effects of News Literacy Messages
Abstract: Despite increasing academic attention, several questions about news literacy messages (NLM) remain unanswered. First, it remains unclear how differences in the framing of the NLMs may influence their effectiveness. Second, we still know little about how NLMs work and, in particular, whether people also adopt the recommendations they are given. To answer these questions, this study conducts an experiment in the Netherlands and Belgium, where we manipulate the frames of the NLM, comparing interventions using a “fake news” frame with those using a “reliable news” frame or a mix of the two. We also manipulate elements in the false news article that participants have to evaluate afterwards. Our findings show that all three types of NLMs are effective in making people resilient to misinformation, without resulting in a general decrease in trust in accurate news (=spill-over effect). In particular, news literacy media messages with a “mixed” frame are effective, as they make people critical toward false news articles, and also result in a higher perceived accuracy of accurate news articles. Additionally, the findings provide suggestive evidence that NLMs work, at least partly, because participants also adopt (some) of the recommendations being given.
Source: Van Erkel Patrick F A. The International Journal of Press/Politics, September 2024; 31(1): 140-160
Enhancing mis- and disinformation detection and understanding its influence: leveraging communication accommodation theory and information manipulation theory
Abstract: Addressing the detection and spread of mis- and disinformation presents a complex challenge. Using the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) software, we examined the defining linguistic features that distinguish fake from authentic COVID-19 news. Drawing from Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) and Information Manipulation Theory (IMT), we analysed 70 fake and 70 true news stories. CAT proved more effective than IMT in predicting linguistic cues, with fake news found to contain moralising language, interpersonal conflict, and informal speech markers, including swearing, netspeak, assent words, and exclamation marks – patterns consistent with hate speech. In line with IMT, fake news was found to exhibit higher frequencies of causation, future focus, and certitude words. True news unexpectedly contained more discrepancy terms, markers of clout, analytical thinking, positive emotion, and tentative language which might be explained by journalistic conventions that differ from dyadic interactions. Drawing from Social Identity Theory (SIT), we make the case that fake news stories may position themselves against ‘others’ rather than aligning with a group. This study offers a novel framework for future researchers in the science of detecting mis– and disinformation, and to further understand how fake news deceives at scale and influences unwanted behaviours.
Source: Whitty Monica T. Behaviour & Information Technology, Mar 2025
Diagnosing multimodal disinformation: the integrative ‘Three-M' framework of multimodality, manipulation, and malintent
Abstract: The ubiquity of short-video platforms (e.g., TikTok, Douyin, Kuaishou) has amplified the circulation of multimodal disinformation. To address this challenge, this study proposes an integrative theoretical ‘Three-M’ framework (multimodality, manipulation, and malintent) to examine the construction, dissemination, and politicization of disinformation. Moving beyond synthetic taxonomies, the framework demonstrates that analyses confined to modal complexity, technical manipulation, or intent in isolation risk misdiagnosing how multimodal affordances are strategically mobilized to operationalize deception. By treating multimodality, layered manipulative strategies, and malintent as analytically inseparable, the model reveals how specific cross-modal configurations enable tactical credibility-building while embedding broader ideological projects. Through a case study of disinformation related to the 2023 French Riots on Chinese short-video platforms Douyin and Kuaishou, this research investigates the actors responsible for disinformation production and dissemination, the semiotic strategies underpinning its multimodal architecture, and the sociopolitical malintents driving its circulation. Findings reveal a prevalent ‘truth-weaving’ tactic, where disinformation is strategically embedded within factual elements to enhance its credibility, underscoring how multimodal coherence operationalizes both tactical deception and strategic ideological narratives.
Source: He K. Information, Communication & Society, March 2026
Informational Quarantine: Should It Be Punishable to Spread Medical Disinformation During a Pandemic?
Abstract: The effectiveness of medical measures to fight a pandemic cannot be reduced to their technical and scientific properties. For example, the success of the vaccination process depends partially on the information around them. Part of society may reject safe and effective vaccines if they are perceived as dangerous. Hesitancy to vaccines could translate into a threat to individual lives, public health, and the economy. Many measures may hinder the dissemination of harmful content related to vaccines. This chapter discusses the idea of “informational quarantine,” an ethical rule that should be applied concerning information crucial for counteracting the pandemic. It adds to the discussion about disinformation and the issue of the individual responsibility of the users for spreading it. This chapter suggests the time of a pandemic could be a circumstance that could justify introducing criminal law protection of information concerning vaccines that should be applied only during the course of a pandemic, for the most harmful ways of violating “informational quarantine.”
Source: Mamak K. Business Ethics in the Healthcare Industry, January 2026; 145-158
Artificial Intelligence, Misinformation, and Libraries: A New Frontier for Information Professionals
Abstract: Generative artificial intelligence (AI) has experienced rapid advancement, fundamentally transforming the information landscape. This technological shift has not only amplified the dissemination of misinformation but has also posed significant challenges to conventional frameworks of trust and verification. This paper explores the dual impact of AI: its potential to enhance information services while simultaneously amplifying misinformation and disinformation. Seven AI-generated misinformation cases between 2022 and 2025—ranging from deepfakes and political propaganda to impersonation and amplification were analyzed. Through thematic case analysis and interdisciplinary synthesis, the study proposes the AI-Misinformation Resilience Model (AIM-RM), a conceptual framework guiding proactive responses across verification infrastructure, digital literacy, and ethical policy engagement. Drawing on recent scholarly literature and grounded in information ethics, epistemic trust, and sociocultural literacy, the model offers a path forward for LIS professionals seeking to navigate the post-truth era.
Source: Salubi O. Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology, October 2025; 62(1): 572-581
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5 Practical Ways Librarians Can Tackle Misinformation and Build Critical Thinkers
Abstract: Misinformation spreads fast and it’s getting harder to stop.
False or misleading content travels quickly because it taps into our emotions. It’s entertaining, shocking, comforting – or all three. According to a well-known MIT study, falsehoods on social media can travel up to ten times faster than the truth. It reaches us through outrage, fear, or belonging, long before we even realise we’ve been hooked.
Meanwhile, trusted systems like third-party fact-checking are being phased out, and community tools such as X’s Community Notes often struggle with anything emotional, partisan, or complex. Many misleading posts go unchallenged simply because consensus can’t be reached.
But in the middle of this information disorder, libraries and librarians stand firm.
We are the original fact-checkers. We answer questions with care and context, not algorithms or AI models. That puts us in a powerful position to help learners and communities navigate today’s information chaos. And we don’t have to do it with dry lectures or grim warnings.
Here are five engaging ways to help your library users build resilience, curiosity, and critical awareness.
Source: Bilobrk C. Simple Little Library System, September 2025; 7(2): 232-43
Addressing Mis- and Disinformation on Social Media
Abstract: The value of accessible and reliable information was made abundantly clear during the COVID-19 pandemic. Amid high levels of uncertainty, auditing the most important developments and emerging evidence from the deluge of content was no easy task. A significant proportion of all information in circulation was false or misleading, making navigating public health and policy choices even more problematic. This chapter focuses on the challenge of responding to mis- and disinformation while respecting freedom of expression, particularly in times of crisis.
Source: Canela G. Managing Infodemics in the 21st Century: Addressing New Public Health Challenges in the Information Ecosystem, May 2023: chapter 9
Misinformation
Abstract: Now, more than ever before, we are faced with an information crisis. The internet, social media and AI are all contributing factors to the influx of misinformation, disinformation and malinformation that we are all faced with.
Misinformation is the spread of incorrect or inaccurate information, but with no ill-will. The individual does not know it isn't true.
Disinformation is the intentional spread of incorrect or inaccurate information. The individual knows it isn't true.
Mal-information is the spread of accurate information, but done in a way to harm another person.
So, what can we do about it?
We've gathered a collection of resources that tackle exactly that question. Critical thinking skills have always been essential, and these resources help us to develop and deepen those skills in a time where we may need them more than ever.
Source: The Open University; 2026
Misinformation and Disinformation: Literature Review
Abstract: This briefing provides an overview of the available academic and grey literature on misinformation and disinformation, with a particular focus on the available evidence for the UK.
It seeks to answer the following questions:
• What is the nature of misinformation and disinformation?
• How do we measure the prevalence of misinformation and disinformation?
• Who is susceptible to believing misinformation and disinformation?
• What interventions and mitigations are effective against misinformation and disinformation?
Source: Ofcom, May 2025
Co-creating ways to navigate and mitigate against mis and disinformation: Report for Ofcom by Verian
Abstract: Under the Communications Act 2003, Ofcom has statutory duties to promote and to carry out research into media literacy. The Online Safety Act 2023 added clarification and specificity to our media literacy duties. Amongst other things, it requires Ofcom to build public awareness about a range of media literacy and online safety issues, and a duty to help users understand the nature and impact of disinformation and misinformation, and to reduce exposure to it. This qualitative report is the culmination of a mixed-methodology programme of research designed to add to the evidence base of understanding of mis and disinformation in the UK. Our quantitative research, published in November 2024, laid the foundations by providing evidence of how UK adults think and feel about “false or misleading” information: where they see it, why they think it’s false or misleading, and what they do and feel as a consequence. Our quantitative survey demonstrates that susceptibility to mis and disinformation is context-specific: there are differences in attitudes and behaviour across topic areas as well as the formats of information. So, rather than specific groups being more susceptible than others, it is more useful to think of groups in terms of their patterns of susceptibility. Anyone can be considered susceptible in different ways and at different times, so we took the view that the qualitative stage of the research should include participants from all segments of society. In addition, the quantitative data set allowed us to identify three groups that were of particular interest in relation to mis and disinformation, as they reported encountering it more often, were more concerned about its impacts, expressed an interest in finding out more, and/or had lower accuracy in identifying true statements on a range of topics in the survey. These groups were young people aged 16-34, those from ethnic minority backgrounds, and those for whom English was not a first language. Our sample structure for this qualitative research (set out in Appendices 1 and 2) reflected our desire to hear from a broad sample of the UK population, as well as to specifically give a voice to individuals from these 'overlap' groups* in relation to mis and disinformation. This report sets out the findings from in-depth interviews, expert roundtables and co-creative workshops, exploring the approaches, messages, and trusted voices that might be most resonant with different groups when countering mis and disinformation.
Source: Outhwaite S. Verian, May 2025
Impact of strategies to mitigate misinformation in diverse settings and populations: a protocol for a living evidence synthesis
Abstract:
Introduction
Misinformation refers to inadvertent misleading information that the public may be exposed and share without intent to cause harm, and can delay or prevent effective care, affect mental health, lead to misallocation of health resources and/or create or exacerbate public-health crises. There are many strategies to address misinformation, but there is a need to evaluate their effects. Our objective is to synthesise and routinely update evidence to assess the impact of strategies to mitigate health-related misinformation in diverse settings, and populations.
Methods and analysis
We will search seven databases in May 2023 with planned updates at 6 and 9 months, which will be supplemented with searches for grey literature and reference lists of included studies and contacting experts. Two reviewers will independently screen all search results for studies that evaluate one or more approaches to addressing health-related misinformation. One researcher will conduct data extraction and risk of bias assessments, which will be reviewed by a second reviewer for accuracy. We will include experimental, quasi-experimental and observational studies for any populations, settings and diseases without language or publication restrictions. We will conduct quantitative analysis if meta-analytical pooling is possible. If pooling is not possible, we will synthesise quantitative data according to outcomes and interventions addressed, and present a narrative summary of findings disaggregated by sex and/or gender, irrespective of whether differences were found.
Ethics and dissemination
There are no individuals or protected health information involved and no safety issues identified. Results will be published through the Global Commission on Evidence and COVID-END websites, in a peer-reviewed journal, as well as through plain-language materials.
Source: Wilson M. BMJ Open, October 2023; 13(10): e076672
Librarians as guardians of information quality: navigating the challenges of misinformation and disinformation
Abstract:
Purpose
This study aims to explore the pivotal role of libraries in combating misinformation and disinformation in the contemporary information landscape, emphasizing their significance as guardians of information integrity.
Design/methodology/approach
Drawing on a review of literature and surveying librarian perspectives, this study examines the multifaceted strategies used by libraries to address misinformation and disinformation. It delves into the roles of librarians in distinguishing between different forms of false information, promoting information literacy and fostering community engagement.
Findings
Libraries serve as bastions of knowledge, curating diverse and reliable resources while actively combating false information through educational initiatives, technological innovations and community outreach. Librarians play a crucial role in empowering users with the skills to critically evaluate information and navigate the complexities of the digital age.
Originality/value
This study contributes to the scholarly discourse by highlighting the evolving role of libraries as guardians of information integrity in the face of misinformation and disinformation. It underscores the importance of libraries in promoting a more informed and resilient society, enriching public discourse with the values of truth and understanding.
Source: Adewojo Akinade A. Library Hi Tech News, July 2024; 42(10): 9-12
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Librarian Perspectives on Misinformation: A Follow-Up and Comparative Study
Abstract: While academic librarians have been quick to respond to the crisis of misinformation through information literacy instruction and tool development, little research exists on the extent to which they are teaching news literacy skills in the classroom. This study explores academic librarians’ perspectives on misinformation and whether they are addressing misinformation in their teaching. The results are compared to a previous study on faculty perspectives. Findings show that librarians are concerned about misinformation and are integrating it into their instruction. While their concerns and activities overlap with discipline faculty in many respects, some significant differences exist which might cause barriers to further implementation.
Source: Saunders L. College & Research Libraries, 2023; 84(4)
The role of libraries in misinformation programming: A research agenda
Abstract: Misinformation, or fake news, has exploded across social media platforms and communities over the past few years, with serious social and political implications. Many library practitioners and organizations have argued that libraries can and should play a central role in educating the public about this emerging issue. However, serious gaps exist in understanding how libraries can create effective community education about misinformation. This article maps out a research agenda that researchers and public library practitioners can use to make libraries more effective sites for combatting misinformation. This research agenda is grounded in analysis of interviews and workshop discussions of public library staff from Washington State. This analysis reveals three areas in which academic partners can support public libraries: through the design of effective programming, through the development of tools that help librarians keep up-to-date on relevant misinformation, and through interventions in the political and economic contexts that hamper the freedom of librarians to engage controversial topics. Our hope is that this article can help to spur more expansive library and information science research across these areas and become the beginning of a longer and more empirically grounded conversation about how public libraries can achieve their potential for combating misinformation.
Source: Young Jason C. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, October 2020; 53(4)
Academic Librarians and Information Literacy Practice in an Age of Mis/Disinformation
Abstract: This paper presents findings from a study exploring Australian academic librarians' concerns about the impact of misinformation and disinformation on society, university students and access to reliable information. It also investigates strategies librarians consider effective for addressing mis/disinformation through information literacy programs. Sixty-two librarians responded to a survey comprising Likert scale and open-ended questions. Respondents expressed the greatest concern about the influence of mis/disinformation on news media and social media. There was strong agreement that mis/disinformation should be regulated on social media and that librarians play a key role in addressing it through information literacy. However, views on the importance of AI solutions were more divided. Demographic analysis revealed nuanced differences: those currently not working directly with students were more likely to agree that AI has an impact on combatting mis/disinformation compared to colleagues with face-to-face teaching responsibilities. As approaches to combating mis/disinformation through information literacy continue to evolve, and with rapid technological change including AI, there is an urgent need to rethink information literacy instruction, integrating media and AI literacy, to equip students with the skills required to recognise and combat mis/disinformation.
Source: Johnston N. Journal of the Australian Library and Information Association, April 2026; 75(2): 321-339
Libraries roles and practices to enhance information resilience: Academic librarians’ perspectives
Abstract: COVID-19 has changed the information landscape. The results were the wide spread of information of all kinds and from all sources, leading to increased information disorder (i.e. disinformation, misinformation practices). This study aimed to explore the practices of academic libraries during times of crisis from the staff perception in four public universities in Jordan to correct the information disorder and hence create information resilience among community members. Exploring these practices helps shed light on the libraries’ contribution to creating information resilience practices and hence an information-resilient community. An interview was used to collect deep insights from 26 library staff working in the Information Division at the four academic libraries. The results were mainly directed towards the importance of increasing community awareness and providing access to quality information sources. It also affirmed the importance of information skills to help individuals locate the right and accurate information. It was affirmed that developing and promoting information literacy programmes was the main pillar to countering information disorder and establishing information resilience. The findings will provide insights for other academic libraries on the best practices to create an information resilient community.
Source: Hamad F. Journal of Information Science, September 2023; 52(2): 383-397
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Source: Hamad F. Journal of Information Science, September 2023; 52(2): 383-397
Contact the library for a copy of this article
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